(1) The Grove Art online index for a general encyclopedic overview of art history
(2) Online databases accessible through the library, including the Art Index and the Bibliography of the History of Art
(3)“Exhibiting Cultures,” by Ivan Karp, from Smithsonian publications
(4) “Ways of Seeing,” edited by John Berger
The books will be in the library reserves for two hours.
Also, remember that flash-free photography is allowed so please take advantage of the opportunity to document the artifacts and artwork in the exhibit. I would also encourage you to post your opinions and any pictures that you take on the blog, then we can compile a slide show of the photos for class. Remember that Professor Levan keeps track of your blog participation and that takes into consideration your blog contribution when assessing your class participation level.
21 comments:
My comment for the Museum fieldtrip was that it was a good experience. I still haven't made it to most museums in D.C. which is a shame, so to finally get that experience was fun. I enjoyed the tour, it was extensive and our guide gave us so many details I couldn't think of anything else to ask. I have never in my life studied African art so this was a completely new experience for me. I can't say that I loved it, but then, I'm not a huge art person. However I found the pieces highly thought-provoking because they were nothing like I am used to seeing in the Westernized world. Also, the ideas behind why so much of the art was made as it was, was explained to us in the tour which really helped to raise my appreciation for the pieces that we saw. In a way, I thought the African art was very realistic but the ideas that shaped how the art was, that came from the different African cultures were so different. It was slightly difficult for me to understand but I believe this is just because it was new. I definitely found my favorite piece though. It was the Kongolese crucifix. That is what I have chosen to write my paper about.
My actual paper:
(Crucifix
Kongo peoples
17th century
Copper alloy)
I chose this particular display in the Smithsonian African Art Museum because it struck me so. As a religious person, more specifically a Catholic, the idea of a crucifix and religion being in other countries that I know little about intrigues me. It shows that there is common ground, even across seas. Therefore, I chose this display as one to learn more about and discover what this crucifix was doing all the way over in Africa, because, surely, it must have been introduced somehow.
The object on display represents the fact that God and religion were introduced into (at least) the Congo area in Africa at some point in time. The fact that this item is from the 17th century gives us some ideas that will lead us to ask questions about when religion was introduced into the area, how it was accepted (or not) among the natives, and whether it was imposed or merely introduced to the native peoples. At least, these were the questions I asked myself as I examined it.
This particular crucifix is unique it seems, because it does not look like the typical crucifix you would see in the Western World. Phenotypically, it does not look like a white or European man and it is very simplistic, not detailed at all. This could simply be caused by a lack of resources to make the crucifix with at the time or the non-existence of the proper tools with which to make it. However, it could also be different looking as a reflection of the native culture’s influence on the ideas of religion and God, whether positive or negative.
After doing a little bit of research, the crucifix takes on more meaning. As the display informed, missionaries and Portuguese peoples learned of the Congolese tradition of using staffs and scepters as symbols of power. These two groups of people were responsible for introducing crucifixes into the culture. After this initial introduction, Congolese peoples made crucifixes on their own which began taking on more African-like qualities. Yet, the cross that Jesus hangs from was already a symbolic icon in the Congolese society before the missionaries and emissaries came to the area. In the Congo, the cross signified where the Earth and sky met, or in other words, the two worlds (similar to the idea of Heaven and Earth). This already present meaning could have influenced why the existence of the cross remained in the culture even when outsiders left the Congo.
The Christian religion did, however, have some impact on the people of the Congo. “Kongo people absorbed some Christian rites and materials into their own practices.” However, mostly, “Kongo chiefs used them [crucifixes] as power tokens without a Christian interpretation (Crucifix).” This explains then, the extent to which Christianity was introduced into the culture and how, seemingly little, it affected and influenced the people overall.
Smithsonian Trip Report: Bamum Mask
Krista Simmons
Civilizations of Africa
Dr. LeVan
February 4, 2008
Of the numerous impressive pieces in the Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection, the Bamum Mask from the Pa Nje Village in modern Cameroon made a particular impression on me. Its fierce look and the variety of materials used captured my imagination and made me want to learn more about the piece and the people who created it. I discovered that the masks features not only created the fierce effect which struck me, but had meaning as well.
The Bamum Kingdom is famous for its artistic tradition. As they expanded throughout the 19th century, one of the aspects of a conquered people which they would take control over was the art (Gainsborough). This fact helps us to understand how important the arts were to Bamum society. Masks in particular played a central role in Bamum life. The masks were used regularly in displays of the power and wealth of the kingdom, through dance and music the masks became living artwork (Gainsborough). The masks were also used by men’s associations in celebration of the specialized knowledge they possessed (Smithsonian). This was the case for the mask that caught my eye. Men who possessed such knowledge were in high standing and the masks they danced in needed to reflect that as well as intimidate and intrigue those who were not a part of the group (Smithsonian). This use for the mask reveals a civilization in which knowledge was greatly valued and in which the arts were closely tied with knowledge. Further, the masks use reveals a very complex social structure in which men of knowledge were held in high esteem.
The mask’s fierce appearance is less surprising in this context: it was all about power. The power of the man who wears the mask is displayed in a variety of ways. To start, the mask’s covered head would be an indicator that the figure is deserving of respect among the Bamum people. Further, the frog pattern on the head gear suggests fertility. The upward direction in which the antelope horns, themselves emblems of power, suggest aggression and power as well (Smithsonian). The open mouth and bared teeth create an intimidation effect. The wild raffia rough used around the neck represents a sort of conquering of the earth. Even the shape of he mask has meaning, as the round head of a mask was a characteristic of secret societies around the capital of the Bamum kingdom, Foumbam (Gainsborough).
Most outstanding, however, are the eyes. Their eerie glow provide the most jarring effect and the materials used to coat them would have been further jarring to the Bamum people because of their significance: the silk of the ground tarantula. This dangerous animal was thought to be very wise and a source of divination (Smithsonian). In order to obtain the silk, one would have to know the secrets of the tarantula and have power over it. The eyes of this mask reveal the ability of the wearer to harness the powers of the tarantula.
There is nothing incidental about the striking nature of the Bamum mask that caught my eye at the Smithsonian Museum of African Art. Every last feature was intentionally designed and included for a distinct purpose. Because the mask’s design is so deliberate, a lesson about the mask becomes a lesson about the Bamum people and provides a look into a very rich, complex society.
Bibliography
“Gainsborough, Thomas” Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, [January 31, 2008], http://www.groveart.com/.
Smithsonian Museum of African Art, The Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection, January 28, 2008.
As per Dr. Levan's request I will not be posting my complete work (it ended up being pretty long).
In a nut shell: I did my paper on the Funerary Sculpture of the Sakalava or Bara peoples of Madagascar. The main thrust of my paper was to explore the unique anatomical accuracy of the work. At this point we all are (or should be) familiar with African art and the common themes. This piece lacks the typical exaggerated features and rather communicates the life of an actual person, not an ideal. My paper explores the techniques the artist used to communicate ideas about this actual person and evaluates their effectiveness. I will, of course, make my paper available to anyone who requests it.
Thanks a bunch
Ben
I did my paper on a piece that was a bit smaller but still very elegant and fascinating. It was a pair of armlets created by the Yoruba people in the Owo region (today southern Nigeria) between the 16th and the 18th centuries. The armlets were massive and made out of ivory. The king of the Owo region, the Olowo, would wear the ivory armlets as part of his ceremonial attire. It signified his importance and status but it really wasn't very flashy. There are also very intricate carvings in the ivory armlets that were full of various motifs. One of the most striking features are the heads carved into the armlets with their large open eyes. It seems also that creatures are appearing out of their nostrils, which relates to the concept of the head as the locus of spiritual forces, an almost literal swelling of power. It is unclear what types of animals are included in the carvings but there is an obvious depiction of some sort of four-legged land animal and another of a small creature that appears to live in water. This could potentially suggest a motif of a being that dwells in two worlds- that of water and land or something that is real yet spiritual. The small water creature has been described as “fish-legged” and these legs are curving and forming into the shape of a “W.” Some have guessed it could have potentially been a mudfish, which in art and myth, are a combination of several species and can survive without water. It is also said, “transcend the realms of land and water and symbolize Olokun, god of the sea and bringer of wealth and fertility” (Freyer). These ivory armlets, worn on the arm of the Olowo, were a symbol of the extraordinary abilities of its owner When wearing the armlets, the ruler was signaling his connection to Olokun to the rest of his people.
When I visited the African Vision exhibit at the Smithsonian National Museum of African Art, I was rather astounded by the very different portrayal of artwork by Africans. I have really only ever taken the opportunity to expose myself to works by Western artists before this time. There were many different aspects to the pieces in the collection that are not normally dealt with in Western artwork of the same time period. One of those aspects is the sexual nature that can be expressed with African artwork.
For this, I have chosen to write about the Female Figure of the Bamana people of Mali. This figure struck me at first because of its very outright portrayal of sexuality. The figure is depicted naked with the hands supporting the breasts. She is also shown with an enlarged stomach, but not necessarily pregnant. She is depicted in this manner to show that she is capable of bringing life into the world, of possibly being a nurturer in society. She draws attention to her breasts to accent the fact that she can have a nurturing ability. (Smithsonian) The figure also shows that she is serving here as an attendant within the group, meeting the needs of others within the network. This shows us that the network among the people in this society was very communally driven. She is not only carrying enough water for herself, but for others as well. Other artwork from this time period and location was all very similar. It was primarily comprised of tall and slender figures that were almost all depicted naked as well. The majority of figures was also female and had very accentuated breasts. Something that is not visible in Western art at this time.
Within the Bamana society their strong sense of tribalism was probably the most profound characteristic. Daily tasks of the people would go above solely serving the needs of their individual family units, but would incorporate many people within the society. (Roberts) We can see this in the figure because she is carrying a very large pot that will probably serve the needs of multiple people within the group. The Bamana are a Mande group of people who share many similar practices with other tribal groups within this western section of Africa. One of the practices that they share is that of Griots. These are the storytellers that pass on the histories of the people. This is how we have been able to learn about these groups of people. Had it not been for the Griots, we would not have adequate information about these pieces of artwork. Another important facet in their lives was the role of Islam. They used the religion as more of a tradition and not as a set of strict rules that one must follow. Islam was another way the people were able to come together for celebrations and religious holidays. (Roberts)
I feel as though the artwork of the entire Bamana people is able to rather accurately depict the society rather well. The figures demonstrate some aspects of the daily lives of the people while highlighting what the people within the society value.
Link to Photo:
http://american.facebook.com/album.php?aid=2089812&l=e6731&id=7411742
Smithsonian Museum of African Art, The Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection, January 28, 2008.
Sarah C Brett-Smith. "Bamana identity, state formation, and the sources of Bamana art. " Rev. of: Bamana: The Art of Existance in Mali. American Anthropologist 104.3 (2002): 939-944. Research Library Core. ProQuest. American University Washington, DC 7 Feb. 2008 http://www.proquest.com/
Roberts, Mary N. Bamana. New York: Center for African Art, 1985.
"African Vision." Smithsonian Institution. 6 Feb. 2008 http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/africanvision/figures/index.html.
This is a short summary of my response. If you want to take a look at the whole thing, please don’t hesitate to ask.
I found the African Art museum intriguing. I have been exposed to African art in a few of my art history classes, so I thought I new what to expect. I was surprised to find that this strange art could hold my interest just as much as the western art that I love. I decided to explore one of the recurring themes in art: glorifying the person in power and using art as a means of political propaganda. I chose to use the Mask of the Bamun people to exemplify this. In my response I go through the contextual concepts behind its construction and what it would have meant to the Bamun people as well as to the imperialist powers who had a presence in Cameroon at the time.
In my paper I choose to research the armlets of the Yoruba peoples from the Owo region. I thought they were beautifully elaborate and skillfully done. I focused on what the Yoruba defined as art and what kinds of subjects they typically portrayed. I discovered that there was a specific canon centered on religious rituals and symbols. It was interesting to learn about another canon that existed hundreds of years ago in a kingdom in western Africa. I enjoyed this museum visit because it was the first time I could analyze non-western art. I've taken two art history courses and I have been disappointed that the primary focus has only been on European influences and artists. This was a refreshing topic to research and examine.
As a quick summary of my paper, I chose to write about the Kongolese crucifix on display at the museum. During the tour I was stuck on the statement our guide made about how the visage and body of the "Christ" didn't show the same kind of suffering and purpose as western crucifixes. It kind of lacked the heavy religious symbolism that tends to accompany the image of Christ on the cross.
This allowed me to view the crucifix not as a symbol of religious conversion, but as the African adaption of a western image for traditional native purposes. I also touch on the Portuguese connection with the Kongo kingdom and how people did convert to Christianity, even though it wasn't always permanent.
I'm taking a class on Christianity this semester, and really regarding the crucifix from a different perspective was quite refreshing.
Art Expression in the Grassfields Region of Cameroon
The first figure that caught my attention as I toured the Smithsonian Museum of African Art was a carving of a male figure by the Bamum peoples, Fumban, Grassfields Region in Cameroon made in the early 19th century. I was drawn to the wide, white eyes which contrasted with the dark wood. I also noticed that the carving had a lot of well thought out details about it. The red, white, blue, and yellow beads also contrasted with the wood, and the geometric patterns in which the beads were placed made the statue aesthetically pleasing. “Within the grasslands area, figures decorated with beads are quite popular and represent the most well-known sculptures of the region” (Mbaku 108).
I couldn’t help but stare at this piece of artwork to try and understand its facial features as well as its stance. The man’s face looks elderly and it seems as if one hand is clutching his neck and the other is holding a drum. This could be why the figure’s eyes are so wide, because he is being choked. This could be a figure of a chief or king because they have encouraged the “rich artistic culture” of the grasslands (Mbaku 107).
Another figure I enjoyed is called the figure of King Bay Akiy, made by Bvu Kwam of the Isu Kingdom in the early 19th century. This figure was made out of wood, ivory, pigment, hair, bone and cloth. According to the Smithsonian Museum of National Art, this figure represents the king’s conquest over the Nshe, a neighboring tribe, and “the pose relates to a regional tradition of representing personal achievement.” The figure is holding a weapon and his enemy’s head to show that he was victorious in defeating them. At first glance, the figure looks evil because he is smiling while holding a decapitated head. The museum suggests that this related to Kwam’s artistic style. To me, it demonstrates the pride of this king. He has no sympathy toward his enemies and he has the head as a prize.
In Cameroon’s western grasslands, “kings use art to enhance royal prestige and authority” (Mbaku 103). This has resulted in exchanges among inter-kingdom alliances. Such exchanges have resulted in the sharing of cultures, creating the “grasslands art style” (103). The development of the royal courts of the western grasslands peaked in the nineteenth century, which gave artists better tools with which to work (103). “Almost without exception, grasslands societies were well structured, with the king, who was considered a divine being, sitting at the apex” (103). With this being said, all artwork belonged to the king and he held a monopoly over it (103). German, French and British colonial rule ultimately damaged the power of the kings and left some kingdoms in ruins (103). Their “civilizing missions” felt ineffective with the kings still in power so they sought ways to either discredit or get rid of them (Mbaku 104).
In some ways, these figures represent the somewhat artistic freedom of the Grassfields region in Cameroon. They represent the time before European rule and when kings were highly respected. Each figure represents someone of high authority and seems to pre-date the Christian era, in which artists had to do their work according to what the colonists wanted.
Just a quick overview: I chose to do my paper on a specific tribe, rather than a specific piece. I was influenced by both the Divination platter and Glass Bead helmet, both which were created by the Yoruba people. I researched the religious history pertaining to the divination board and political and economic standings, referencing the beaded helmet. I also briefly described daily life and a quick summary of their history.
I particularly enjoyed the Asante drum in the African art collection. I was drawn to the aesthetics of the base and I was also—and continue to be—fascinated by the role of the drum in certain African cultures. Much like many other African cultures, the Asante people of Ghana (also known as the Ashanti people) use the drum for numerous occasions. They use drumming during celebrations, funerals, and even to communicate with each other over vast distances. The Asante people came to Ghana searching for functional farmland. The discovery of good land led to a population increase in the region and communities were formed. The Asante people eventually fell prey to British colonialists who took over their land.
The Asante people placed great emphasis on the village. The village was a central fixture in the land and the life of the people stemmed from the village. All of the ceremonies of the Asante people took place in the village; the drum was an integral part of all of these ceremonies. As aforementioned, the drum would be used for funeral ceremonies, or in joyous ceremonies.
The layout and scene depicted on the drum give further insight into the culture. The base of the drum is intricately decorated with colorful etchings of animals. The deep textures of the etchings bring the scene to life. According to the Smithsonian website the various animals on the base all have a certain importance to the Asante culture. For instance, according to the Ashanti website, one of their famous proverbs is “a mighty tree has fallen” (http://www.ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html) which would be a way of saying that a king had died. The large tree in the middle that rises above all of the other of the drum could symbolize the power and importance of a king figures in the Asante culture. Also one interesting illustration on the drum is the elephant riding in the truck. The Smithsonian website touched on how this illustration represents the fusion of both colonial and indigenous influences in formatting the culture. Taking the elephant/truck image one step further the two images can represent the past of the Asante people (through the elephant) and the integration of technology in their daily life (truck).
The drum struck me because there are so many elements of this culture all woven together in a beautiful scene. The artistry coupled with the use of the drum encapsulates much of this culture. At first glance, the drum simply can be seen as an instrument. But once one delves deeper into the Asante culture it becomes evident that the drum contains a lot of symbolism.
Works Cited/Consulted
“A History of the Ashanti People.” http://www.ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html.
Accessed 5 February 2008.
National Museum of African Art. http://africa.si.edu/. Accessed 5 February 2008
What made the Walt Disney-Tishman collection so impressive was the individuality of each artifact. The unique symbolism in each object spoke volumes as to what it meant or was used for. Many of the pieces were very carefully crafted which led to the conclusion that they were meant for the high ranking individuals in that particular African society. To a western eye, the rare materials that made up many of these fantastic pieces meant nothing, yet when examined with the assistant of a trained scholar, it was apparent, the impression these objects must have made on the peoples of their native land. Some of the pieces were so lavish and ornate that they must have been tedious to wear about. One such piece was a 20th century Yoruba beaded crown.
The Yoruba crown stands almost three feet tall and is covered with incredibly detailed three dimensional figures, each of which holds a certain significance, playing into the overall meaning of the image. The entire ensemble is so fantastic that there is a woven veil that is meant to protect civilians from the terrible gaze of the ruler that is donning the garment. On the rim of the crown are three native tribes-people kneeling in respect of the array of valued animals that stand above them. The image on crown must have reflected the reality of peoples response to the crown. Birds are known to have significant spiritual abilitity in Yoruba lore, and are regarded as some of the most powerful creatures; they stand at the top of this crown clearly discernable to all who look (Smithsonian). The chameleon stands as the centerpiece of the display, protruding from the front as a symbol for the most powerful creature in Yoruba society. The chameleon is believed to be the oldest thing in existence, predating the earth´s creation as the all-knowing entity. Embedded in the stitching is the face of Oduduwa, who was the creator of Yoruba´s first city, Ile-Ife (Smithsonian).
Thousands of miniscule glass beads make up the body of this magnificent headdress. Because of the fact that they appear on the crown, it is understood that glass beads were fashionable in that culture. Beads contribute a very different meanings based on their color and shape, this can be seen especially on this piece. The many red and white beads that make up the overall body are symbolic of the thunder god Sango, who is said to provide a healing aura on the wearer (beads, body and soul). Glass beads themselves hold many positive connotations in that they provide good luck to anyone who wears them. Each color and variety of the bead has a different meaning so that the display of a variety of different shapes and colors of beads is in itself, making a statement. Part of what makes the headdress so amazing is the fact that it was all created manually. These glass beads are so expertly made that they are valued all over the world, which is why they also happen to be one of Yoruba´s largest trade item in the 19th and 20th century. The process of stringing together these elaborate ensembles is seen in Yoruba as being just as important as the final outcome.
Even though this Yoruba culture existed in the relatively modern times, it is obvious from their art that they still lived a lifestyle that was comparably primitive. The ruler seems to be regarded as a godlike figure, reigning supreme over all his people and creatures. As we can see on the headdress, even the most holy of animals were seen as paying their respects to the man donning the crown. The hat is styled such that it would be cumbersome for anyone to wear it at all, especially when conducting business. It is clear that the people of Yoruba at this time were not involved in much white collar business. The culture seems somewhat impoverished and agriculturally based, aiming to survive only within the scale of its own village. The culture seems to be a very elaborate with much of it based around the worship of its many nature gods. The skill and dedication that went into constructing this beautiful mask seems to reflect the society from which it came.
Eavesdropping on the Colonial Conversation
If museum trips of any kind are useful, it is only insomuch as they offer a concave look into history, that is, one which opens our gaze and does less to answer our questions than it does to push them towards greater sophistication. The most hazardous of pitfalls lies in the temptation to essentialize history, to dispense with its inherent complexity in favor of easier answers and cleaner narratives. Heading towards the class trip assignment with this in mind, and knowing, too, that the exhibit to which we were privy was provided through the patronage of the Walt Disney Corporation, I was eminently and pleasantly surprised to find such nuance and depth. The central notion that seemed to pop up from piece to piece, was that the local particularities aside, each's craftsmen existed not in a vacuum, but expressed cross-cultural experience and knowledge with their art, going so far as to translate foreign values into their motifs. Our tour guide explained to us how, for instance, Portuguese patrons would commission high end ivories from local artisans as gifts to be given from one nobleman to another, as was the genesis of a piece on display from the late 15th century Sierra Leone. The notion is dumbfounding. Emerging now is a picture not of civilizations engaging in mutually isolated cultural production, but of peoples meeting each other, and their interactions, in many cases, playing themselves out in each other’s art. Again, this is just the sort of thing the historically conscious and intellectually conscientious person should expect of the stories told by a museum, Smithsonian or not. Too often, we lazily pigeonhole history, succumbing to the perpetual temptation of dividing the world ad infinitum into the non-analytical categories of East and West. What makes the pieces at the exhibit reflecting Portuguese colonialism so important is that they reveal a more complex relationship between the patron and artist, the occupier and the occupied.
The piece which spoke to me most on this trip, and which I feel most vividly conveys this complex colonial conversation, is the Kongolese crucifix, dated to the 17th century, from the place which is now the DRC. A dark copper alloy Christ hangs as though suspended, and though the basic image departs little from that which has become ever-so-abundant in the Westernized world, small differences do become readily apparent. Suffice it to say, the posture of the figure is dramatic, and its features, distinctly African. Aesthetically, I would say the character of this Christ is different at a most fundamental level, and this fact may be attributed to, as I came to learn, the investment of the Kongolese’s visual vocabulary into a piece which would hold not merely a transplanted Christian, but bicultural spiritual significance: "Christian crosses, rather than being seen as signifiers of a 'new' European god and religious faith, were locally identified as a mark of sacred crossroads where humans and spirits came together in contexts of ritual and prayer. Among the Kongo, as MacGaffey notes, 'The cross was known… before the arrival of Europeans and corresponds to the understanding in their minds of their relationship to their world…'". The Christian cross is known to have been introduced to the Kongo by the 15th century, but as I was to learn, its recipients were already possessed of a sophisticated knowledge revolving around crosses; they already had an indigenous understanding of its meaning. In the words, again, of our wonderful tour guide, crosses are understood in this particular African context as signifying the locus at which the earth meets the sky, i.e. where the material and spiritual worlds collide. Thus, the diffusion of Christianity into this part of Lusophone Africa yielded not a monolith, but a new hybrid cultural system, premised on a conversational rather than uni-directional movement of meaning. Opening back up to broader reflections such as these, gleaned through a careful observation and interrogation of just one piece of ancient art, occurs to me as such a remarkable and satisfying process. It is on this basis that I deem the trip an overwhelming success.
The National Museum of African art exhibited a beautiful collection of artistic works for different African artists who successfully depicted the culture and beliefs of the ethnic group they belonged to. One marvelous piece of work is bowl with figures by Olowe of Ise (1875-1938). Another was a female figure for an anonymous African artist. Both of these two works depicted the female role in Yoruba peoples of Nigeria. In general, Yoruba art portrays gender role in ritualistic themes. In sculpture, the male is “hunter/warrior, herbalist/diviner, drummer, king, bush animal, and woman’s partner.” On the other hand, the female is portrayed as a “mother, priestess, bird, and man’s partner” (Drewal, 1992, 175).
Typically, females in sculpture are shown with their breasts exposed. That emphasizes their mother roles. In other figures, they are shown breast-feeding or carrying a child. The other important role that women play in Yoruba culture is spiritual in nature. Women can be initiated as priestesses and act as a medium for their deities to become their physical representation (Drewal). During nursing period, women are considered ritually pure because their period is suppressed and sexually abstinent which often depicted in Yoruba art as nursing priestesses (Drewal). Figure 2 represents a woman carrying a load on top of her head going to the market or participating in a procession to honor the god Shango. Shango, the god of thunder, rewards his devout by bestowing them with children.
Figure 2 also represents women role in economy. They are mainly traders and control the market. Farmers sell their harvest to middlewomen who resell it to another marketwomen. The marketwomen manipulate and control the prices either by stockpiling or flooding the market with goods (Drewal). Being a trader gives women in Yoruba culture a great mobility, influence, and independence within her household. Moreover, women in Yoruba society are the potters. They make various kinds of pots for different purposes like cooking, eating, storage. They also make unique designs in honor of Yoruba deities (Phoebe, 2004).
The Yoruba based their economy on farming, trading, and, most significantly, on art work. Their artistic production is unique in the way it amazingly depicts their culture and religion and hence helps in learning their history. It shows in sculpture, metal work, textiles, beadwork, and woodcarving (Phoebe, 2004). Human beings are the most characteristic subject matter of many of Yoruba art work; however, animals are also represented. The uniqueness of Yoruba’s art rules out any possible influences from other cultures like ancient Egyptian, Greeks or the Romans which proves that it is solely an achievement of the indigenous Yoruba people.
The Story Behind the Crucifix
Julia Gerlach
My knowledge of African art is on the same level of my knowledge of Slavic languages. Like Slavic languages, I know African art exists and I could probably recognize it when confronted by it, but my knowledge ends there. So walking into the Smithsonian Museum of African Art I was excited to learn more about the amazing art from this continent. I found all the pieces interesting, but the piece of art that I chose to write about was the Crucifix from the people of the Kongo.
The crucifix caught my eye immediately; it seemed simple in comparison to the other intricate pieces of sculpture and artisanship that surrounded it. The first thing that caught my eye was how the Jesus figure had clearly African features. This simple piece of art spoke such clear volumes for the synthetic blending of cultures. It presents a religious symbol mostly associated with the west which taken in the hands of African artists and transformed to fit their culture while still relating to the western world.
I found the crucifix to be aesthetically pleasing but the story behind it is what really drew me in. The Kingdom of Kongo took to Christianity fairly quickly and with little protest. One of the common beliefs was that this conversion was forced and not truly a changing of faiths, this is in fact not supported by evidence today. The Kongo kingdom easily accepted Christianity and found a way to blend it with their indigenous beliefs while still creating a Christian faith which was deemed “orthodox”(Thornton 149). This is the story which the crucifix in part tells; it speaks of a blending of cultures, of blending the old ways with the new.
The curator at the museum and the display spoke of the image of the cross. In the traditional beliefs of the kingdom of the Kongo before the incursion by the Portuguese the image of the cross took on significant spiritual imagery. For the people of the Kongo the cross, before they knew of Christianity, represented a place where the spiritual world met with the physical world. At the cross the world where the gods dwelled muted and intertwined with the world in which we dwell. When I read this I was deeply moved. In the Christian faith, which I subscribed too, the cross has a very parallel meaning. In Christianity the cross is where Jesus died thus reconciling us to God and restoring the connection between God and the people of earth. The way the people of Kongo view the cross is almost the same way Christians view the cross. Not only is this mutual sharing of culture a beautiful concept, it in part explains why the leaders and people of the Kongo were so accepting and embracing of the Christian faith.
The roots of Christianity were already laid in the people of the Kongo culture long before the people of the Kongo ever heard the name Jesus or the word Christian. When the missionaries came they were not bringing a new idea instead they were bringing new intricacies to a traditional belief. This crucifix is not merely an African Jesus figure made out of copper alloy. It is a blending of cultures; it is a symbol of the accepting of new beliefs while remaining rooted in the past.
I chose the "a-tshol" relic because it stood out to me the most in the museum. It's a Baga relic dating back to the mid 20th century.
The Baga people, a small West African ethnic group, live in the coastal regions of Guinea. A Baga relic, this Shrine figure, one of the most important ancient clan objects is known as “a-Tshol,” Which in English call be directly translated to “medicine”. This sculpture is an interesting combination of human and animal. It consists of an elongated scull, four sections of hair, a bird’s beak, and other human features that are easily distinguishable. It sits on top of a stand because the Baga believe that this relic should never touch the ground, if it did, it would bring bad luck to the people. The significance of this is that it was believed to have healing or protection powers. This ancient relic is believed to connect the Baga with the spirit world, and “holds the power of transformation of youth into adults, of illness into health, of empty fields into abundant crops. This object was used for people to give offerings to in hopes of good health, and would also be used during dancing rituals, funerals and other ceremonies. They were also used as shrines to protect the clan against negative forces. “A-Tshol worked to heal as a curative agent, to disclose wrongdoers and fight sorcery and to determine appropriate retribution for unacceptable social behavior. Farmers would also approach the a-tshol during planting season to assure a successful harvest.” This statue tells us a lot about the Baga people. Because it is such an important relic we can see that they believed in Idols at their highest form of worship. Animals must have also been a big part in their culture because this relic is part bird.
The clan’s eldest male would be the only person to be able to invoke the objects powers. We can also deduct that this was a patriarchal system because it was the eldest male who kept this statue. While much is not known about this object because it is part of the ancient culture of the Baga, many means have been passed down. Some have said that the beak is not a bird but actually a farming tool, which helped the Baga people’s agriculture survive. While the bird would make sense because it is an animal that watches over from the sky, it could also mean something else. The Baga were originally a mountain people but were forced to the coast of Guinea hundreds of years ago. The ground was hard and they say that the farming tool was used to penetrate the surface of the hard ground. This relic is the only known remaining spiritual artifact of the original mountain culture of the Baga people.
My trip report focuses on a wooden sculpture of an upright male figure. The piece was of interest to me because it may have been used in the male initiation ceremonies of the Tsonga people. Also the piece has a discoloration around the hips and thighs which would suggest it may have been covered or clothed at some point. This gave the piece a bit of mystery and I wondered about the artist's original intention as well as the piece's interpretation by later owners.
I was immediately drawn to this piece, “Bowl with Figures” as I entered The Walt Disney Tishman African Art collection. The colors and intricacy of the piece were astounding, and really jumped out at me amidst the other artwork. The curator also gave a brief synopsis of the piece, which lead me to become very interested. The artist, Olowe of Ise was an innovator in his time. He was a member of the Yoruba peoples of modern day Nigeria, a people whose culture I find supremely interesting.
Among the many facets of their culture, I find the creation myth the most fascinating. They believe they were the first people of the world, and that human kind started in their city of Ilé-Ifè (Falola and Genova 35). After the first few days of class, I have also learned that the first humans were indeed on the African continent and loved to see this reflected in their myths. While there is no archeological evidence to this claim, I think it is an important part of their culture. The second thing I found very interesting about this piece was the imperialist culture behind the work that has finally been attributed. Many African artists were considered “anonymous” and Ise was one of them. This occurred, “Because of racial and cultural biases that prevailed at the time, few ethnographers and collectors were interested in knowing the answer to the question ‘Who made this?’” (Walker). Therefore many beautiful pieces of artwork were rarely attributed to their creators, who were more than likely famous in Africa. This only reflects the impact that colonization has had on a majority of regions on the African continent.
The last aspect of the piece that I really enjoyed was the history behind both the piece and the artist. This bowl is a member to a family called prestige bowls, sculpted for the wealthy elite. It was probably used to serve kola nuts, a Yoruba tradition. The bowl was carved from a single piece of wood, and reflects Ise’s mastery with a free rolling head in the center. The head cannot be taken out of the “cage” in which it rests, and was carved to fit exactly. Ise is known for his artistic daring, and also for his use of large heads and non-static figures. Most of his carvings have an illusion of movement and ornately textured surface space (Bowl with Figures).
I really came to respect Ise as a carver when I did my research and found the best aspect of his artwork, Ise was an early feminist. The lid of the bowl depicts four women dancing in unison, the first time women had been represented in that way in all of African art. It also shows nude males and clothed females, a departure from conventional African art. Usually, “Males in Yoruba canon are depicted fully clothed and standing, while females are portrayed kneeling, unless they represent royalty” (Bowl with Figures). Kneeling was a sign of subservience in African art, and in this bowl it is both men and women who kneel to support its weight. This idea was radical at the time, and through my research I found that Yoruba society had a high stratification between males and females. This depiction of females on the lid of the bowl can be seen as new iconography, and a testament to Ise’s lack of convention in both his artistic style, and the society he decided to represent. I think this is a very unusual representation of “reality” in this artwork.
I chose to write about the "Kongo Crucifix" piece in my presentation primarily because of its cross-cultural implications. I thought it was really telling how the crucifix had been introduced by Christian missionaries but later adopted and appropriated by the Kongo, long after the missionaries and their Portuguese allies were out of the region. As it turns out the cross is an important symbol to the Kongo, symbolizing the intersection of the spiritual and physical worlds, and so Christian symbology was influential to them far less for what it meant to Christianity than for what it meant to the Kongo. Perhaps more important, though, was that it revealed a dynamic side to the interaction between Europe and Africa - that even in Christianity, an area Europeans guarded jealously, the Kongo did not just passively receive the results of Portuguese interaction but rather were active participants in an interreligious and international dialogue and asserted themselves against strict proselytizing. It reveals a more nuanced view of the relationship between Africa and Europe.
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